Postcolonial Self-Creation in the Hong Kong Adaptation of Pygmalion
Following the handover of sovereignty from Britain to China in 1997, Hong Kong embarked on a renewed exploration of its cultural identity. This quest for identity found a powerful resonance in the late-1997 musical adaptation of Pygmalion, titled Yao Tiao Shu Nv (Lovely is This Noble Lady). This article argues that the musical's success stemmed from the underlying themes of colonialism and postcolonialism present in George Bernard Shaw's original work. By recreating the setting, the characterization, and the soundscape of a Hong Kong in its early colonial years, the adaptation negotiates cultural identity within the specific context of postcolonial Hong Kong.
Bernard Shaw, Pygmalion, Lovely Is This Noble Lady, postcolonial
As 1997 began, Springtime Group, a Hong Kong theater group specialized in the localization of western drama, was reveled in the success of their first long-running full musical. Yet their two co-founders Ko Tin-lung and Clifton Ko, found it "too flamboyant" and realized that "most of [their] core audience is a more mature group who prefer something a little more serious."1 They turned their interest to Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion to stage "something more serious." Shaw and his plays were no strangers to the audiences in Hong Kong. Many of his masterpieces have been produced or adapted on stage since the birth of Hong Kong theater and some of his works entered Hong Kong curriculum. Springtime Group staged a localized adaptation of Pygmalion, titling it Yao Tiao Shu Nv (Lovely is This Noble Lady), a verse drawn [End Page 274] from the Chinese classic, The Book of Songs, with Rupert Chan, an experienced translator of western drama as the playwright and Ko Tin-lung, the director. Instead of "translating it directly from the English version of My Fair Lady," they took "the original Shaw play" and portrayed a Chinese "Eliza" coming from Taishan in the 1930s when Hong Kong was under Britain occupation.2 This adaptation features, as Bernard Shaw expected of his Pygmalion, more than "a love affair between Higgins and Eliza."3
Critics hailed this adaptation as a handover play in the cloak of Pygmalion "strike(ing) a balance between the East and the West after the handover."4 Since the Sino-British Joint Declaration of 1984 delineated the impending transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong to China in 1997, the local intelligentsia had been grappling with questions of cultural identity. The staging of Shaw's Pygmalion at such a delicate moment intertwined with the grave concerns of the leading producers of Springtime Group over the destiny of Hong Kong. While the opening appears to embrace globalism, potentially transforming the Hong Kong rendition into a "postmodern hybridity"5 that celebrated the erasure of colonial history, subsequent scenes delved deeper, examining the enduring legacy of colonialism and the tensions between nationalism and folk nativism.
Pygmalion also calls into question a series of delicate and serious issues that bothered English audience in the 1910s: "Irishness," "Englishness," "independence," and "social oppression and colonial subordination."6 Eliza is often read as the lower class subordinated by Professor Higgins and Colonel Pickering. In the Hong Kong version, Colonel Pickering is no longer a high-rank official newly back from India, but transforms into a phonetics professor newly back from South Asia. The colonial connotations are weakened when Hong Kong Pickering takes off the uniform. In fact, I argue that Springtime Group continues Shaw's reflections over colonialism and postcolonialism not only through the relationship between the three main characters, or the transformation of the heroine, but also through the mise-en-scène of the adaptation. The tensions between colonial history, Chinese culture, and local consciousness are embodied in the delicately designed settings.
The above triangle relationship haunting postcolonial Hong Kong has been a repeatedly discussed issue for historians and cultural scholars among whom Rey Chow's voice cannot not be ignored. She contends that Hong Kong, different from any other region in the world that gains independence after the colonial history ends, is caught between the oppressive culture of both Western and Chinese with its distinct folk culture. Chow regards Chinese culture as rural and mythic—as opposed to the urban and modern Hong Kong culture—extols the impurities of Hong Kong cultural identity, [End Page 275] and laments the periphery position Hong Kong occupies in the entire Chinese culture. A historiography of Hong Kong irrespective of "British and Chinese habits of historiography" is highly advocated and dubbed as "post-colonial writing."7
Chow's article articulates an expatriate intellectual's concerns over her hometown. Published five years before Lovely Is This Noble Lady was produced, it resonates and converses with this handover play. The play somehow borrows from Shaw's deconstruction of dichotomy of colonial domination and subordination, but falls into another conundrum of problematic cultural confluence, the similar conundrum that leads Chow to quest for a vacuum of historiography unaffected by outside forces. Chow suggests postcolonial writing as an approach to evade the conundrum, articulating a concept of autonomy and community that negotiates "a third space between the colonizer and dominant native culture."8
Independence is an unanswered question in Pygmalion with the dubieties that Eliza leaves stage with a final line "what you are to do without me I cannot imagine."9 The Hong Kong version also provides an open answer about Hong Kong's future road with two versions of ending. I argue that the localized performance of Pygmalion gives the entire crew a chance to recreate the setting, the characterization and the soundscape of a Hong Kong in its early colonial years. Through this postcolonial creation, the production negotiates cultural identity within the specific context of postcolonial Hong Kong.
I
When Shaw eventually granted permission for the American adaptation My Fair Lady after much persuasion and negotiation, he did not expect the musical Pygmalion to become a symbol of globalism. My Fair Lady exemplifies the cultural exchange and impact of popular culture facilitated by globalism. Popular culture, which extols romanticism and merriment, has always been an integral element of the musicals in Hong Kong. The joyous embrace of global popular culture and cultural exchange is showcased from the outset when the dancing troupe, adorned in various costumes, celebrates Hong Kong's inclusiveness as a melting pot. This creates the illusion that a century of oppression and humiliation has come to an end without any lingering aftermath. In the play, the lingering influence of colonialism implicitly gives way to globalism, the same tide that brought the Broadway musical My Fair Lady to its front door. The intentional eradication of colonialism is evident in the space exclusively reserved for local Chinese and the misrepresentation of foreign governance. [End Page 276]
Shaw is highly alert to how the spatial division and geographical distribution are determined based on such factors as political, economic, cultural and social differences from the very beginning of his playwriting career. In Widowers' Houses, Shaw's depiction of London's fragmenting center demonstrates "a crisis for the living space of the poor and social misdirection of the city's wealthy inhabitants."10
While Pygmalion uses spatial distribution to imply the class division between the middle class and the low class, the Hong Kong version supplements it with racial and colonial political divisions. Even starker contrasts in spatial demarcation exist resulting from class differences and colonial disparities. A vertical distinction can be observed in the 1930s Hong Kong geography: Englishmen primarily resided and confined their social engagements to Victoria Peak, while affluent Chinese inhabitants occupy residences halfway up the hill. The Hong Kong Freddy pessimistically foresees that "should our family decline, we will be compelled to relocate to the base of the hill."11 Those residing farther from the hill tend to occupy increasingly impoverished and marginalized positions in society. People in lower strata, such as the local Eliza—TO Lan Heung—dwell in the slums near the port, far away from the hill. Despite residing halfway up the hill, wealthy Chinese frequently visit the foot for leisure and shopping activities. The cast prioritize the vibrant folk community within Chinese-exclusive spaces, downplaying the spatial disparity between colonizers and the colonized, thereby circumventing the influences of colonial culture.
Nevertheless, creating an exclusive space and erasing colonial history doesn't necessarily prevent Hong Kong Eliza from grappling with a complex identity, as evidenced by her awakening after the party to what Eliza experiences. Both locations Lan Heung is publicly showcased symbolize the material culture and etiquette of upper-class society. Lan Heung's adoption of social manners, Hong Kong accent, pronounced English, and fancy attire earns her recognition initially as a fashionable lady and later as someone of European aristocracy. Lan Heung undergoes a feminist awakening that conformity to societal constructs of an upper-class lady dictates one's social standing, yet these norms and the performance of upper-class behaviors fail to foster an authentic self.
It's not only Hong Kong Eliza, who has to grapple with self-discovery and identity rupture, but also the Chinese celebrities, underscoring the complexities of self-identity in this context. And this is further facilitated by the settings in which the actions unfold. Professor Tam, the Hong Kong Higgins, escorts her to her social debut in Azalea Garden,12 where Mrs. Tam, adorned in Chinese chirpaur, busies herself entertaining her Chinese guests who adhere to the hostess' dress code. Mrs. Tam and her Chinese guests [End Page 277] symbolize the Chinese bourgeoisie, tasked with navigating relationships with both the Chinese and colonial governments to sustain their business interests. They embody "urban elites connected with modern business," exhibiting loyalty to Great Britain while upholding their Chinese identity.13 In its portrayal of double identity and mixed values, the musical intentionally obscures images of colonial governance, the true proprietor of the Azalea Garden. This creates the illusion that the Chinese bourgeoisie has become masters of the garden, with colonial authority dissolved and colonial ideology diluted. The scene where Mrs. Tam and her guests, attired in Chinese chirpaur, partake in the English tradition of low tea in the absence of colonial oversight highlights the ambivalence of mimicking English aristocratic culture.
Lan Heung faces the ultimate test at the dinner party hosted by a "big guy"—the Hong Kong governor (Englishman) to honor the new graduates of Hong Kong University. Unlike the ambassador who gives final recognition to Eliza, the Hong Kong governor and his officials—symbols of colonial authority—are conspicuously absent, leaving behind the all-Chinese space.
Hong Kong Eliza's captivating presence draws attention and admiration not only from agents of English institutions but also from Chinese celebrities, undermining the Eurocentric gaze directly from colonial agents and from colonial institutions. The ballroom dancing performance by the well-trained graduates signifies their mastery of advanced Western knowledge and refined manners, reflecting the globalization of entertainment and the popularity of European social dances. The two trials also serve to indicate intergenerational disparity in entertainment within local bourgeois culture rather than a mere imposition of colonial norms.
The musical intends to weaken the tangible injustices and racial inequalities entrenched by colonial rule and to stress the intangible impact. Lan Heung's mastery of English thrusts her into the limelight. Rumors, fueled by Professor Tam's rival, paint her as the illegitimate daughter of a high-ranking British official, ultimately solidifying her upper-class position. This underscores the growing awareness of how colonial power structures and fluency in the colonizer's language can manipulate identity for the colonized.
Not only are horrific acts of colonialism hidden from view, the images of colonial authority are also absent. The Hong Kong Pygmalion constructs a world solely focused on Chinese social interactions, where colonialism appears only indirectly. However, this exclusively Chinese space remains with social standing still relying heavily on colonial symbols and culture. The wealth and authority of the Chinese bourgeoisie are deeply intertwined with colonial power. And intergenerational disparities are heavily influenced by the assimilation of colonial values. [End Page 278]
II
In his book Performance Studies: An Introduction, Richard Schechner argues that drama serves as a vehicle for the expression and preservation of folk culture and provides a glimpse into the rich tapestry of folk traditions, customs, and folklore that make up the cultural fabric of a society.14 Shaw, as an Irish immigrant, held a nuanced perspective on his homeland's culture and consciousness. He acknowledged the unchanging reality of young Irish folk's "foul minded derision and obscenity" depicted in Ulysses, and praised Joyce's courage to "face the horror of writing it all down."15 Though Shaw found it difficult to confront Irish folk culture, he attempted to capture the essence of the communities he inhabited. Apart from plays like John Bull's Other Island that directly explore Irish themes, most of his works, which are set in London, might reveal how he incorporated and perhaps even critiqued elements of folk culture in his portrayal of social realities.
Pygmalion doesn't extensively showcase folk culture in a similar way. Its settings provide a backdrop of everyday life in early twentieth-century London and contribute to the portrayal of local culture and customs. Shaw's vivid portrayal of Covent Garden and Eliza's humble surroundings evokes empathy for the destitution wrought by class division. "Old wall paper," "pane-broken window," "birdcage without tenant," and "other irreducible minimum of poverty's needs" constitute her entire possessions (31). The birdcage without birds and the pictures of actresses hanging on the wall perhaps reflect the slum girl's desire for a better life and for self-transformation.
The Hong Kong adaptation takes a different approach in showcasing folk culture, more through folk traditions, community bond, and folk rituals. To exemplify Hong Kong Eliza's origin, a rich tapestry of her community is highlighted instead of a detailed examination of her shabby shelter. It portrays a crowded area inhabited by migrants who fled war on the mainland for a precarious existence in cramped quarters by the docks, yet live like a family and support each other. Even though the living conditions of the slum community form a stark contrast with the uphill one and denotes class division, the bustling streets, filled with shops and ramshackle dwellings, represent the early stages of Hong Kong's urbanization and the crucible that forged the city's unique identity and local consciousness.
Shaw did not give a clear picture of the background of the Doolittle family, but inferred a cockney accent and an implicit reference to Welsh diaspora.16 In the adaption, the Doolittle family clearly hails from a district in Guangzhou, a province neighboring Hong Kong and a source of significant migration to the city. This shift highlights the strong sense of community [End Page 279] found among these migrants. Shared hometown language, religious beliefs, and cultural values foster a powerful bond that transcends blood ties. This explains why the Hong Kong Eliza maintains a close relationship with her stepmother, acquires from her a Taishan dialect (a specific Cantonese sub-dialect spoken in that region), and willingly attends to their wedding ceremony. Their close-knit community provides the Doolittle family with the strength to endure all difficulties. Eliza is no longer a lonely flower girl but thrives in the company of other flower girls.
While Alfred Doolittle embodies the irony of assimilation by transforming into a moral critic, Hong Kong's Doolittle presents a different dynamic. Professor Tam, recognizing his expertise in feng shui, capitalizes on it by recommending him to foreign residents. Doolittle's success transcends social class—he gains recognition from both the local Chinese middle class and foreigners, who hold a position of power during the colonial era. His practice of feng shui in foreign homes can be seen as a form of cultural exchange rather than a subtle resistance. By adapting his traditional skills to a new clientele, he demonstrates a shrewd business sense and cultural adaptability. The adaptation highlights the porous nature of cultural exchange, even within a colonial power structure.
Pygmalion concludes in the drawing room of Mrs. Higgins, with Shaw evidently trusting the audience's imagination to envision Eliza's ultimate decision on her father's wedding. This open-endedness persists in the Broadway musical, which switches to Doolittle's nighttime revelry with a bachelor party at a pub. The musical mirrors the play by withholding Doolittle's wedding from the stage following Eliza and Higgins's climactic confrontation. Conversely, the Hong Kong adaptation diverges by explicitly depicting a lavish folk wedding ceremony and a scene of reconciliation between Eliza and Higgins.
Hong Kong Doolittle's wedding ceremony is arranged next to the slum, with his intimate neighbors celebrating his marriage. Amidst warm greetings from his slum community, the wedding proceeds in accordance with folk rituals. Neighbors act as the escorting team, playing drums and gongs, and carrying wedding utensils. When Mrs. Tam and her son arrive at his wedding uninvited, seeking forgiveness from Lan Heung, they attempt to mingle in the local ritual. The reconciliation between Professor Tam, a member of the Chinese bourgeoisie, and Lan Heung, a low-class flower girl, signifies the embrace of folk wedding traditions and a growing sense of local identity among the Chinese middle class. This challenges the expectation that they would fully assimilate colonial culture. Simultaneously, it signifies the transcendence of division between rich and poor Chinese, progressing from class division to cultural unification. [End Page 280]
Bernard Shaw's close-up portrayals of slum dwellings and unwritten scenes of church weddings, when transplanted to Hong Kong, are imbued with a strong local flavor. The infusion of local culture fosters a spontaneous sense of local identity, giving rise to an organic society bound by tradition, cultural memory, folklore, and familial ties. Hong Kong Doolittle's decision to return to the slums for his wedding exemplifies this. While he embraces the allure of the middle class, he maintains his connection to this organic community. Notably, the class divide Shaw aimed to portray through the local scenes in Pygmalion is subtly downplayed in the Hong Kong version. Here, a new scene unfolds—the Higgins family venturing into the slums and enjoying itself with the residents, a testament to Hong Kong's strong sense of local identity characterized by inclusion and assimilation.
III
The question of nationality is subtly explored by Bernard Shaw on multiple levels throughout Pygmalion. To begin with, the surname "Higgins" as an Irish surname suggests that the phonetics professor is "an Englishman of Irish descent."17 In this way, Higgins's control over a lower-class girl and efforts to refine her English skills imply a critique of the hierarchical relationship between the upper class and the lower class as well as between England and Ireland, highlighting English as both a social and national identifier. Shaw, known for his anti-nationalist and pro-independence views, offers a perspective from which he critiques societal norms and national identities.18
In the adaptation, language still carries significant national implications. According to Professor Tam, the acquisition of the Hong Kong accent will grant Lan Heung the access to refined society, and to independent ownership of a flower shop. Emphasis of the Hong Kong accent symbolizes an acknowledgement of Hong Kong citizenship, an alternative when both British and Chinese nationalities are denied to them, a compromise for most Hong Kong people amidst the complexities of national identity during the entire colonial era.19
The adaptation further addresses the issue of nationality through cultural Chineseness. Both the offstage team and the characters onstage grapple with a strong sense of hometown nostalgia and a desire to preserve their "cultural Chineseness." The playwright Rupert Chan, known for adapting Western classics into Hong Kong dialect, had a strong attachment to Chinese culture. Reflecting on his upbringing in an interview, Chan recounts how his father insisted that he and his younger brother adhere to traditional [End Page 281] dress codes and customs, including saluting etiquette during the Spring Festival, prompting them to contemplate their identity as Chinese.20 The play extends this theme through the characterization and the set design. Professor Tam, with his traditional gestures and adherence to Chinese culture, further visualizes this issue.
Both Professor Higgins and Professor Tam use body language to express themselves. Higgins's signature "jingling his money and his keys in his trouser pockets" (68) signifies his eccentricity and disregard for social norms. While the script describes this action, directors may need to exaggerate it for stage clarity. Professor Tam, the Hong Kong Higgins, presents a variation in this signature gesture, drawing upon the rich vocabulary of movement from Cantonese opera. His body language exhibits a fascinating duality. He can switch between powerful, Jing-like gestures and the delicate orchid finger, showcasing both his strength and scholarly refinement. During the climax of his lyrical speeches, the professor raises his right hand above his head for emphasis. This gesture mirrors the movements of the Jing role type, known for its larger-than-life male characters. By borrowing this operatic gesture, Professor Tam conveys resolve, courage, and even a warrior-like stance—traits evident in his frustration with the slow-learning Lan Heung.
Yet, Professor Tam is not solely defined by strength. He also displays a delicate "orchid finger" gesture, especially when encouraging Lan Heung. This gesture, mimicking a blossoming orchid, symbolizes purity and detachment—values cherished by traditional Chinese scholars. The feminine softness and beauty inherent in the orchid finger gesture serve as a counterbalance to the forcefulness and masculinity of the Jing role, hinting at a balance between Professor Tam's erudition and occasional irritation.
Shaw meticulously details the scenography of the phonetician's interior decoration, particularly highlighting the items that bespeak Higgins's professionalism. The extensive list includes a variety of experimental instruments for phonetics, a phonograph, a laryngoscope, tuning forks, and even a life-size image of half a human head (33). In contrast, Professor Tam's workspace, in spite of professionalism, also highlights the antithesis of western expertise and eastern elegance.
His table is depicted as more minimalist, featuring only a phonograph and a row of tiny organ pipes. The musical further emphasizes contrasting values through the replacement of a grand piano with a simple dining table. While the piano in Pygmalion might serve as a teaching tool, the prominent placement of the Chinese watercolor in the adaption demands the audience's attention. The painting, featuring "two beautiful roosters," becomes a [End Page 282] symbol of Professor Tam's belief system. In traditional Chinese art, roosters following each other represent cooperation and righteousness. This imagery suggests that Professor Tam and Hong Kong Pickering work as intimate partners in training Eliza. Also, it serves as a metaphor for Professor Tam who, despite his Western scientific training, holds dear traditional Chinese aesthetics and values. He embodies not just the "English gentleman spirit" but also the spirit of the Chinese scholar.
In Shaw's play, the audience witnesses a play within a play: Freddy and the party seek refuge from a heavy rainstorm after a successful performance. Meanwhile, Pygmalion begins a new narrative about a poor girl's transformation, though the specifics of the preceding play are left vague. The Hong Kong version clears this ambiguity. As theatergoers exit a building adorned with a "Gaosheng Opera House"21 sign, the final lines of the opening chorus foreshadow the unique blend to come: "Please come into Gaosheng Opera House for an opera feast. There are many excellent plays in the local accent, and the atmosphere is favorably as lively as in a nightclub. Lovely Is This Noble Lady."22
This suggests that the adaptation is an innovative opera staged at Gaosheng Opera House, seamlessly blending Cantonese opera with Western classics. This fusion is also evident in the director's decision to incorporate reformed Cantonese opera verses instead of traditional English ones.23 Furthermore, the martial arts elements that bookend the musical are a hallmark of Cantonese opera, differentiating it from typical Broadway dance routines. This constant reference to Chinese traditional art redefines the play's metadramatic structure.
Though Shaw's exploration of national identity and tradition in Pygmalion might be implicit, Springtime Group's production brings these themes to the forefront. By weaving Cantonese Opera and traditional Chinese painting into character portrayal, dramatic structure, and set design, they forge a new path in semiological dramaturgy. This approach celebrates deep-rooted cultural Chineseness without resorting to overt national symbolism, offering a nuanced conversation with Chinese cultural heritage.
Coda
While Pygmalion most powerfully explores self-creation within social constraints, it also subtly raises questions of national identity, decolonization, and folk culture. These themes provide a foundation for adapting the play in various contexts, particularly postcolonial ones. Lovely is This Noble Lady takes a distinct approach. Similar to Rey Chow's concept of eschewing national and colonial affiliation, it avoids explicit references to colonialism [End Page 283] or the nation-state and celebrates Chinese folk culture, attempting to offer a sense of stability amidst the identity crisis triggered by the handover of sovereignty.
It, however, also reveals the limitations of ahistorical perspectives. Cultural identity becomes more complex when the impact of colonialism is not considered. The adaptation departs from Chow's emphasis on the rural/urban dichotomy between Chinese traditional culture and Hong Kong folk culture. Instead, it draws on Shaw's keen observation of working-class life to explore the complexities of Hong Kong's marginalized communities. This shift in focus also exposes the paradox of crafting a solely folk-based Hong Kong identity. Eliza and her father eventually leaving their working-class roots may serve as a parable that a solely folk-based identity may be unstable due to its marginalized position.
jin wan is a lecturer at Nanchang University, China. Last year, she completed her PhD dissertation, "Landscape and Subjectivity in Shaw's Dramatic Works." Her research interests lie in George Bernard Shaw's works, intercultural theater, and intermedia studies. Her most recent publication is "Visual Performativity in Intercultural Theatre: A Case Study of the Hong Kong Musical Lovely is This Noble Lady."
notes
1. Chung Winnie, "Eastern Make-over for Shaw Classic," South China Morning Post, October 26, 1997.
2. See Kay Li, "Performing the Globalized City: Contemporary Hong Kong Theater and Global Connectivity," Asian Theater Journal vol. 24, no. 2, fall 2007, pp. 440–69.
3. See Michel Pharand, "Pygmalion in Paris," SHAW: The Journal of Bernard Shaw Studies 42, no. 1, p. 27.
4. Li, "Performing the Globalized City," p. 454.
5. Rey Chow criticizes the obliteration of the reality of a colonized culture and defines "postmodern hybridity" as the downplay of "the legacy of colonialism understood from the viewpoint of the colonized" and the ignorance of "experiences of poverty, dependency, and subalternity that persist well beyond the achievement of national independence." Rey Chow, "Between Colonizers: Hong Kong's Postcolonial Self-Writing in the 1990s," Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies 2, no. 2, Fall 1992, pp. 151–70.
6. Kimberly Bohman-Kalaja, "Undoing Identities in Two Irish Shaw Plays: John Bull's Other Island and Pygmalion," SHAW: The Journal of Bernard Shaw Studies 35, no. 1, p. 129.
7. Chow, "Between Colonizers," p. 156.
8. Ibid., p. 158.
9. Bernard Shaw, Pygmalion: A Romance in Five Acts (Penguin Books, 2003), p. 133. All further references to this text are given parenthetically in the text.
10. Sandra Joy Russell, "The Devil Inside: London's Slums and the Crisis of Gender in Shaw's Widowers' Houses," SHAW: The Annual of Bernard Shaw Studies 32, 2012, p. 86.
11. Yao Tiao Shu Nv (Lovely Is This Noble Lady, 1997). Adapted by Rupert Chan, directed by Ko Tin-lung. Universal Laser & Video, DVD 5294.
12. The Hong Kong Governor's Residence boasts a sizable Azalea Garden, which, on occasion, has been accessible to the general Chinese public and leased to a Chinese celebrity, underscoring the close relationship between the Tam family and the governor, as well as the exceptional status held by Mrs. Tam.
13. Chinese bourgeoisie were the dominant urban classes from 1911 to 1937 and in Hong Kong enjoyed certain advantages. Their dual allegiance grants them advantages, allowing them to amass wealth under the protection of both governments. They internalize and embrace the culture and values of the English upper class while preserving their Chinese heritage. Marie-Claire Bergère, Golden Age of the Chinese Bourgeoisie, 1911–1937 (Cambridge University Press, 1989), p. 191.
14. See Richard Schechner, Performance Studies: An Introduction (Routledge 2013).
15. Shaw's response to Joyce's depiction of Ireland can be found in his letter to Sylvia Beach whose legendary Paris bookshop Shakespeare and Company published James Joyce's Ulysses in 1922. See Bernard Shaw to Sylvia Beach, Collected Letters, 1911–1925, ed. Dan H. Laurence (Max Reinhardt, 1985), p. 719.
16. See David Clare, Bernard Shaw's Irish Outlook (Palgrave Macmillan, 2016), p. 27.
17. Ibid., p. 21.
18. See Kimberly Bohman-Kalaja, "Undoing Identities," pp. 117–32.
19. Chan Chi Tak, "Local Self-creation and Disintegration: From My City to Grey Hair Aunt and Others," Hong Kong: Urban Imagination and Cultural Memory, ed. Chen Pingyuan, Chen Guoqiu, and David Der-wei Wang (Peking University Press, 2015), pp. 180–81. [Chen Zhide 陈智德. "Bentu de zichuang yu jieti: cong Wocheng dao Baifaae ji qita 本土的自创与解体—从《我城》到 白发阿娥 及其他, in Xianggang: Dushi xiangxiang yu wenhua jiyi 香港：都市想象与文化记忆, ed. Chen Pingyuan, Chen Guoqiu, and David Der-wei Wang (Peking University Press, 2015), pp. 180–81.]
20. Quoted in Shelby Kar-yan Chan and Gilbert C. F. Fong, "Hong Kong-Speak: Cantonese and Rupert Chan's Translated Theater," The Oxford Handbook of Modern Chinese Literatures, ed. Carlos Rojas and Andrea Bachner (Oxford University Press, 2016), pp. 172–92.
21. Gaosheng Opera House was known for showcasing the latest modern Cantonese operas, a shrine of Chinese traditional culture in the early twentieth century.
22. Yao Tiao Shu Nv.
23. Chung Winnie, "Eastern Make-over for Shaw Classic."
