Le Chiisme. Clés historiques et théologiques by Ameer Jaje
Readers who are unfamiliar with Shi'a Islam or confused about its differences with Sunni Islam will benefit most from Le Chiisme. Clés historiques et théologiques, although first-hand accounts and the author's linking of ritual with belief make this book interesting and relevant for even more educated readers. The mixture of first-hand accounts and scholarly analysis provides a brief, yet at times, detailed overview of the history, practices, beliefs, and culture of Shi'a Islam. Jaje connects historical events with hadiths, rituals, and doctrinal development within this energetic and passionate branch of Islam. By the end of the book, readers clearly see that the religion has such a strong hold on believers because of the persons of Ḥusayn and the other Imams and members of the Holy Family. Shi'a Islam fosters an intensely personal relationship with God and God's servants, the Imams and Holy Family, to help believers in the here and now and at the time of the final judgement. According to the author, the Shi'a tend to emphasise the merciful nature of God.
Jaje points out the many parallels with Christianity, but carefully highlights points of significant difference. People should not make too much out of certain similarities, in other words. Nonetheless, intercessory prayer is commonly practised by the Shi'i. The Imams and members of the Holy family such as Fātima receive these intercessory prayers. They receive great honour from the Shi'i in return for their roles. Faith in these intercessors plays a crucial part in each individual's salvation. Jaje details Shi'a beliefs about Ḥusayn and his pivotal role: "The Shi'i consider Ḥusayn as a model of sanctity. Many popular histories attribute miracles to him, which make him into an extraordinary personage who is assimilated to the prophets. He is compared to Jesus when he accomplishes miracles of healing and gives life to the dead" (43).
Shi'a hagiography depicts Ḥusayn as a man who gave his life for God and the truth, like Jesus. The resulting sense of acute grief and guilt has led to an outpouring of writings on Ḥusayn's holiness over the centuries: [End Page 245] "The imaginations of writers run freely in all the stories of miracles that prove the extraordinary side of Ḥusayn's personality" (46). Such stories portray Ḥusayn's death as shaking all of creation, as even the animals weep. Ḥusayn continues to work miracles. His blood is healing. The author succeeds at showing us the tremendous religiously-inspired creativity generated by the tragedy at Karbalā.
Shi'a Islam derives its beliefs, rituals, and sense of community from historical events and how these continue to be interpreted. The battle of Karbalā and the death of Ḥusayn there are the main historical events. The author helpfully notes the theological and spiritual significance of these events, which he sees as inspired by a revolutionary spirit. Ḥusayn aimed to correct the wrong direction that he believed the Muslim world, under usurpers, was taking. In this act, he became the focal point of the frustration of many Muslim peoples about the Umayyad caliphate, who in Shi'i belief are the chief antagonists. Ḥusayn voiced the disappointment of a certain group of Muslim people who believed that the Umayyads were betraying the Prophet and his work. The author leaves out the role of the other Imams, which would have enriched the discussion and perhaps shed light on the various branches of Shi'a Islam.
These historical events led to the establishment of a sacred geography. The place of sainthood in Shi'a belief and spirituality turned the tombs of holy individuals into pilgrimage sites where ritual and religious feeling was and is most intense. They were the locations of profound grief, which is a central emotion for Shi'i. Pilgrimage sites became a vital and profound part of Shi'a identity, the author points out, in part because they were politicised. Shi'a -friendly governments allowed celebrations, which then flourished, whereas unfriendly governments strongly discouraged or even attacked them, which led to an even greater sense of oppression and revolution. The Shi'i would in those instances be forced to hide their religious activities, which solidified the sense of community. This persecution began with the Umayyads themselves, who did not look kindly on this belief system "devoted to the individual [Ḥusayn] who had dared question the legitimacy of their power and, by that, to destabilise them. They placed guardians who were charged with blocking the Shi'a pilgrims from visiting Ḥusayn's tomb. Whoever disobeyed was threatened with execution" (22). Centuries later, according to the author, one Turkish governor prevented pilgrimage, while another, a Bektashi Ṣufi, encouraged such visitations, which led to the development of commemoration ceremonies. [End Page 246]
The author portrays well the sense of being outsiders. This pure and true outsider status allows believers to hold onto the original ideal of Islam according to the Shi'i. The author covers the resulting profound sense of injustice that the Shi'i have felt. The future, and hope for redress of this injustice, is central to Shi'a Islam: "Faced with the impossibility of taking power through force, the Shi'i then interiorised their desire for revenge and projected their claims of the rights of the ʿAlids (the descendants of the Prophet) to the caliphate to the end of time. This permitted the development of Shi'a thought and established the foundation of its doctrine" (30). The author notes how times of oppression might lead to the stifling of ritual and practice but encourage the development of doctrine, while times of freedom enrich practice and freeze doctrinal enrichment.
Holy days and their rituals play an invaluable role in Shi'a Islam, starting with ʿĀshura. The themes of this day, the tenth of Muḥarram, express two ideas: "We are guilty"; "We have to take revenge for Ḥusayn" (30). Le Chiisme is strongest in its coverage of these rituals, as the Iraqi author relies on his first-hand knowledge of Shi'a practices and beliefs to walk the reader through the ceremonies. The excellent writing is, alas, not accompanied by photos, which would have helped to convey the passionate, grief-stricken aspect of Shi'a ritual. Jaje does leave a clear picture of the funerary aspect of many Shi'a rituals, the role of the rituals in transporting the participants back to the battlefield and the tragedy of Ḥusayn's death, and the guilt and responsibility that Shi'i feel over Ḥusayn's death. "The participants of Ḥusayn's funeral thereby want to accomplish what could not be accomplished at Karbalā, where the martyrs remained lying in the desert, deprived of all rites of burial" (53). Dying as a martyr is the "supreme desire," which these rites express most powerfully through the public practice of self-injuries.
This penitential aspect of the faith is reminiscent, for Catholic readers, of medieval penitence in Christendom. While western Christianity has lost many of these traditions, the Shi'i have retained these in all their original intensity. The author's clear and powerful depiction therefore leaves readers admiring the Shi'i for their forbearance, faithfulness, and humility before the tragedy of Karbalā. This is clearly a religion with a profound spiritual dimension, in other words, for which ritual is not merely a series of pious or therapeutic actions. The author excels at evoking the deeper meaning of these actions, which are dominated by "a sentiment of bitterness and depression" (36). [End Page 247]
Adding to this bitterness and depression is the fact that Shi'a Islam's relationship with Sunni Muslims has experienced countless ups and downs, with the Shi'a community seeing itself as a persecuted minority. The sense of centuries-long differentiation is intense. The author shows how Sunni-Shi'a reconciliation, though not impossible, cannot be carried out in a superficial or short-term manner. This is perhaps the book's main contribution. The vastly different perspectives on the history of these two communities have impacted the spirituality and ritual-making of both camps. While the author sticks to belief and ritual, these distinctions have clear political ramifications.
By the end of the book, readers can clearly identify the unique beliefs, practices, culture, and identity of the Shi'a. One shortcoming may be that the author treats the Shi'a as a uniform block. Jaje does not differentiate between Twelver and Sevener Shi'a, or the Bektashi of Asia Minor, or expand his perspective by discussing whether Shi'a communities in Yemen, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and the new world follow identical practices and have the same beliefs and cultures as the Shi'a of Iraq and Iran. Some readers may be left with the impression that the Shi'a are confined to these latter two countries. Thus while we see how the Shi'a differ from Sunni Muslims (who are also treated as a uniform block) and Christians, we will need to read more widely to find out about variations within the Shi'a community itself. [End Page 248]
